Some reports
are thought-provoking, and others should be dismissed out of hand. Yet all provide
a picture of how Israel was perceived by at least some ancient outsiders. Apart from his occasional supercilious remarks towards Israel, Tacitus provides some
fascinating information on biblical accounts and events that he collected from
Alexandrian sources and others.[i]
Histories §5.2: As I am about to relate the last days of a famous city, it seems appropriate to throw some light on its origin. Some say that the Jews were fugitives from the island of Crete, who settled on the nearest coast of Libya about the time when Saturn was driven from his throne by the power of Jupiter. Evidence of this is sought in the name. There is a famous mountain in Crete called Ida; the neighboring tribe, the Idaei, came to be called Iudaei by a barbarous lengthening of the national name. Others assert that in the reign of Isis the overflowing population of Egypt, led by Hierosolymus and Judas, discharged itself into the neighboring countries. Many, again, say that they were a race of Ethiopian origin, who in the time of king Cepheus were driven by fear and hatred of their neighbors to seek a new dwelling-place. Others describe them as an Assyrian horde who, not having sufficient territory, took possession of part of Egypt, and founded cities of their own in what is called the Hebrew country, lying on the borders of Syria. Others, again, assign a very distinguished origin to the Jews, alleging that they were the Solymi, a nation celebrated in the poems of Homer, who called the city which they founded Hierosolyma after their own name.Some say that the Jews were - The various proposed origins of the Jews may give us a clue to their phenotype in Tacitus’ time. Various groups from Cretans and Assyrians to Ethiopians are mentioned as possible progenitors. This may be grounded in a mixed phenotype as there were various groups of Jews having already been dispersed throughout the ancient world. Perhaps Tacitus didn't know which faction constituted the original group and phenotype among them, or Jews looked somewhat like Northern Indians at that time. This phenotype is the only that conceivably could harmonize such apparent diversities. With such said, it should be noted that phenotype was not the typical determining factor of nationality in the ancient world like it is in modernity. Tribal dress and custom were commonly the standard indicators of one’s ethnicity.
Jews, alleging that they were the Solymi - The Solymi of Pisidia were a group of warriors, that according to Flavius Josephus, aided of the Persian king Xerxes during his conflict with the Macedonians. Eusebius in his Preparatio Evangelica (§9, ¶9) quotes Josephus' work Against Apion (§1, ¶161) where he in turn quotes an ancient poet called Cherilus who recounts Xerxes' expedition. This threefold quote reads,
Cherilus also, an ancient poet, has mentioned the Jewish nation, and how they served with king Xerxes in his expedition against Greece. And thus he speaks, "Next passed a nation wondrous to behold, Whose lips pronounced the strange Phoenician tongue; Upon the hills of Solyma they dwelt By the broad inland sea. Rough and unkempt was their close-cropped hair, and on their heads they wore The smoke-dried skin flayed from a horse's face." Now that he spake this concerning Jews is evident from the fact that Hierosolyma lies on the mountains called by the Greeks Solyma, and that near it is the Asphaltic lake, which is very broad as the poet says, and larger than any of the lakes in Syria. Such then is this man's testimony.On the above, a few remarks are necessary: (1) The "Asphaltic lake" refers to the Dead Sea which was also known as a "lake of fire" in ancient times. (2) The Phoenician tongue was very similar to Hebrew. (3) The city Heirosolyma is the Latin equivalent of יְרוּשָׁלַיִם Yərûšāláyim (= "Jerusalem").
In the ancient world, these three points of data may have served as evidence for identifying Jerusalem as Heirosolyma and Judah as the Solymi. As is obvious by the number of citations in the one block of text above, this proposed etiology for Jerusalem and her inhabitants was not unheard of in ancient times.
Histories §5.3: Most writers, however, agree in stating that once a disease, which horribly disfigured the body, broke out over Egypt; that king Bocchoris, seeking a remedy, consulted the oracle of Hammon, and was bidden to cleanse his realm, and to convey into some foreign land this race detested by the gods. The people, who had been collected after diligent search, finding themselves left in a desert, sat for the most part in a stupor of grief, till one of the exiles, Moyses by name, warned them not to look for any relief from God or man, forsaken as they were of both, but to trust to themselves, taking for their heaven-sent leader that man who should first help them to be quit of their present misery. They agreed, and in utter ignorance began to advance at random. Nothing, however, distressed them so much as the scarcity of water, and they had sunk ready to perish in all directions over the plain, when a herd of wild asses was seen to retire from their pasture to a rock shaded by trees. Moyses followed them, and, guided by the appearance of a grassy spot, discovered an abundant spring of water. This furnished relief. After a continuous journey for six days, on the seventh they possessed themselves of a country, from which they expelled the inhabitants, and in which they founded a city and a temple.Once a disease ... disfigured the body - Tacitus states that many writers speak of a horrible disease in Egypt that disfigured the body. Was this disease boils, perhaps, or something else? Exodus 9:8-12 tells of a sixth plague in Egypt called שְׁחִין šəḥîn (= "boils"), but it isn't the catalyst of Israel's freedom. The death of the firstborn, the tenth and final plague, is what finally precipitates the Jubilee of freedom from Egyptian rule. However, scripture never gives the actual mechanism for causing death in the Egyptian firstborns. Further, in Ex 11:1 this mysterious plague is referred to as a נֶגַּע négga‘ (= "stroke"). This unique term is never applied to any of the other plagues, nor does it ever appear again in the book of Exodus. But it does appear in the next book, Leviticus, where it refers to the dreaded צָרַעַת ṣārá‘aṯ (= "scale disease") traditionally understood to be Hansen's disease also called leprosy. And this, undoubtedly, shares features with Tacitus' report.
King Bocchoris - Known by this name among Greek speakers, this is the Egyptian king Bakenranef that ruled briefly in the 8th century BCE (c. 725-720).
Oracle of Hammon - Hammon is the Egyptian god Amun. Interestingly, Amun's popularity spiked after the expulsion of the Hyksos, a group thought by many throughout history to have been comprised of ancient Israel.
Histories §5.4: Moyses, wishing to secure for the future his authority over the nation, gave them a novel form of worship, opposed to all that is practiced by other men. Things sacred with us, with them have no sanctity, while they allow what with us is forbidden. In their holy place they have consecrated an image of the animal by whose guidance they found deliverance from their long and thirsty wanderings. They slay the ram, seemingly in derision of Hammon, and they sacrifice the ox, because the Egyptians worship it as Apis. They abstain from swine's flesh, in consideration of what they suffered when they were infected by the leprosy to which this animal is liable. By their frequent fasts they still bear witness to the long hunger of former days, and the Jewish bread, made without leaven, is retained as a memorial of their hurried seizure of corn. We are told that the rest of the seventh day was adopted, because this day brought with it a termination of their toils; after a while the charm of indolence beguilded them into giving up the seventh year also to inaction. But others say that it is an observance in honour of Saturn, either from the primitive elements of their faith having been transmitted from the Idaei, who are said to have shared the flight of that god, and to have founded the race, or from the circumstance that of the seven stars which rule the destinies of men Saturn moves in the highest orbit and with the mightiest power, and that many of the heavenly bodies complete their revolutions and courses in multiples of seven.In honour of Saturn - Since ancient times the seventh day corresponded to the day of Saturn. This is where the word Saturday derives from. Further and unbeknownst to many, the word שַׁבָּת šabbāṯ (= "Sabbath") is where the Hebrew word Shabtai meaning "Saturn" comes from.
The seven stars - This refers to the seven classical planets commonly depicted in antiquity due to their visibility: Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.
In multiples of seven - Seven was a popular number in many cultures because so much in nature operates in multiples of seven: month lengths and female menstruations, moon-phases, the number of colors in a rainbow, the number of notes on a music scale, and of course the seven visible luminaries.
Histories §5.5: This worship, however introduced, is upheld by its antiquity; all their other customs, which are at once perverse and disgusting, owe their strength to their very badness. The most degraded out of other races, scorning their national beliefs, brought to them their contributions and presents. This augmented the wealth of the Jews, as also did the fact, that among themselves they are inflexibly honest and ever ready to shew compassion, though they regard the rest of mankind with all the hatred of enemies. They sit apart at meals, they sleep apart, and though, as a nation, they are singularly prone to lust, they abstain from intercourse with foreign women; among themselves nothing is unlawful. Circumcision was adopted by them as a mark of difference from other men. Those who come over to their religion adopt the practice, and have this lesson first instilled into them, to despise all gods, to disown their country, and set at nought parents, children, and brethren. Still they provide for the increase of their numbers. It is a crime among them to kill any newly-born infant. They hold that the souls of all who perish in battle or by the hands of the executioner are immortal. Hence a passion for propagating their race and a contempt for death. They are wont to bury rather than to burn their dead, following in this the Egyptian custom; they bestow the same care on the dead, and they hold the same belief about the lower world. Quite different is their faith about things divine. The Egyptians worship many animals and images of monstrous form; the Jews have purely mental conceptions of Deity, as one in essence. They call those profane who make representations of God in human shape out of perishable materials. They believe that Being to be supreme and eternal, neither capable of representation, nor of decay. They therefore do not allow any images to stand in their cities, much less in their temples. This flattery is not paid to their kings, nor this honour to our Emperors. From the fact, however, that their priests used to chant to the music of flutes and cymbals, and to wear garlands of ivy, and that a golden vine was found in the temple, some have thought that they worshipped father Liber, the conqueror of the East, though their institutions do not by any means harmonize with the theory; for Liber established a festive and cheerful worship, while the Jewish religion is tasteless and mean.They sit apart at meals, they sleep apart - The NT echoes a similar statement when the apostle Peter explains the meaning behind his vision of unclean beasts in Acts 10:28KJV saying, "Ye know how that it is an unlawful thing for a man that is a Jew to keep company, or come unto one of another nation; but God hath shewed me that I should not call any man common or unclean." Another example comes from an incident of controversy that Paul reports, "For before that certain came from James, he did eat with the Gentiles: but when they were come, he withdrew and separated himself, fearing them which were of the circumcision" (Gal 2:12KJV). These put into perspective how radical the notion of preaching and eating with non-Jews actually was in the first century.
It is a crime among them to kill any newly-born infant. - The need to even mention this point speaks volumes about the degree of barbarism present in Tacitus' day. Obviously this was not an unheard-of practice; on the contrary, a letter from one Roman citizen in 1 BCE named Ilarion to his wife contains a chilling admonition:
Know that I am still in Alexandria. And do not worry if they all come back and I remain in Alexandria. I ask and beg you to take good care of our baby son, and as soon as I receive payment I shall send it up to you. If you are delivered of a child [before I come home], if it is a boy keep it, if a girl discard it. — Ilarion’s letter to his pregnant wife (P Oxy 744)They hold that the souls ... are immortal. - An issue that arises among many Messianic and Hebrew Christian groups today is whether Jews of the first century, and perhaps by extension Jesus of Nazareth, believed in an immortal soul or not. Tacitus says that they did.
The Egyptian custom; they bestow the same care on the dead, and they hold the same belief about the lower world. - This point may find support within the Torah itself:
And Joseph commanded his servants the physicians to embalm his father: and the physicians embalmed Israel ... So Joseph died, being a hundred and ten years old: and they embalmed him, and he was placed in a coffin in Egypt. (Gn 50:2, 26)Their priests used to ... wear garlands of ivy - One of the Maccabean histories mention something similar:
"On the monthly celebration of the king's birthday, the Jews were taken, under bitter constraint, to partake of the sacrifices; and when the feast of Dionysus came, they were compelled to walk in the procession in honor of Dionysus, wearing wreaths of ivy." (2 Mc 6:7RSV)A golden vine was found in the temple - There are other sources that attest to this in antiquity. Flavius Josephus in his famous work Antiquities of the Jews reports,
The temple had doors also at the entrance, and lintels over them, of the same height with the temple itself. They were adorned with embroidered veils, with their flowers of purple, and pillars interwoven; and over these, but under the crown work, was spread out a golden vine, with its branches hanging down from a great height, the size and fine workmanship of which was a surprising sight to the spectators, to see what vast materials there were, and with what great skill the workmanship was done. (Ant. 2:394-395)And in the Mishnah, Masechta Middot it states,
There were cross bars of stone stretching from the wall of The Temple to the wall of the porch to prevent it from bulging. There were chains of gold fixed in the roof beams of the porch by which the novice priests used to ascend and see the crowns, as it says, “and the crowns shall be to Chelem and to Toviyyah and to Yedayah and to Chen the son of Tsephanyah as a memorial in The Temple of Hashem.” A golden vine stood at the door of The Temple trained on poles, and anyone who offered a leaf or a grape or a bunch used to bring it and hang it thereon. R. Eliezer son of R. Tsadok said: “on one occasion three hundred priests were commissioned [to clear it].” (Mid. 3:8)Finally, a famous saying attributed to Jesus of Nazareth found in John's gospel speaks of a vine as well,
I am the true vine, and my Father is the husbandman. Every branch in me that beareth not fruit he taketh away: and every branch that beareth fruit, he purgeth it, that it may bring forth more fruit. Now ye are clean through the word which I have spoken unto you. Abide in me, and I in you. As the branch cannot bear fruit of itself, except it abide in the vine; no more can ye, except ye abide in me. I am the vine, ye are the branches: He that abideth in me, and I in him, the same bringeth forth much fruit: for without me ye can do nothing. (Jn 15:1-5KJV)Though not explicitly commanded in the Bible, the golden vine appears to have been a renown feature of the Herodian temple that perhaps even Jesus alluded to and applied to himself (cf. Mt 26:61, 27:40; Jn 2:21).
Histories §5.6: Eastward the country is bounded by Arabia; to the south lies Egypt; on the west are Phoenicia and the Mediterranean. Northward it commands an extensive prospect over Syria. The inhabitants are healthy and able to bear fatigue. Rain is uncommon, but the soil is fertile. Its products resemble our own. They have, besides, the balsam-tree and the palm. The palm-groves are tall and graceful. The balsam is a shrub; each branch, as it fills with sap, may be pierced with a fragment of stone or pottery. If steel is employed, the veins shrink up. The sap is used by physicians. Libanus is the principal mountain, and has, strange to say, amidst these burning heats, a summit shaded with trees and never deserted by its snows. The same range supplies and sends forth the stream of the Jordan. This river does not discharge itself into the sea, but flows entire through two lakes, and is lost in the third. This is a lake of vast circumference; it resembles the sea, but is more nauseous in taste; it breeds pestilence among those who live near by its noisome odour; it cannot be moved by the wind, and it affords no home either to fish or water-birds. These strange waters support what is thrown upon them, as on a solid surface, and all persons, whether they can swim or no, are equally buoyed up by the waves. At a certain season of the year the lake throws up bitumen, and the method of collecting it has been taught by that experience which teaches all other arts. It is naturally a fluid of dark colour; when vinegar is sprinkled upon it, it coagulates and floats upon the surface. Those whose business it is take it with the hand, and draw it on to the deck of the boat; it then continues of itself to flow in and lade the vessel till the stream is cut off. Nor can this be done by any instrument of brass or iron. It shrinks from blood or any cloth stained by the menstrua of women. Such is the account of old authors; but those who know the country say that the bitumen moves in heaving masses on the water, that it is drawn by hand to the shore, and that there, when dried by the evaporation of the earth and the power of the sun, it is cut into pieces with axes and wedges just as timber or stone would be.Libanus is the principal mountain - Libanus is the latinization of לְבָנוֹן ləḇānôn (= "Lebanon"), a term likely derived from a Semitic root meaning "whiteness" (= לבן). This mountain, known for its great cedars, is explicitly mentioned in Jgs 3:3. It is from this region that Hiram amassed cedar-wood to build God's house (1 Kgs 5:3-8). Further, the TargJ on Dt 3:25 attaches eschatological significance to this place:
Let me, I pray, pass over and see the good land that is beyond Jordan, that goodly mountain on which is builded the city of Jerusalem, and Mount Lebanon, where the Shekinah will dwell. (Etheridge Translation)This is a lake of vast circumference - This refers to the Dead Sea.
Histories §5.7: Not far from this lake lies a plain, once fertile, they say, and the site of great cities, but afterwards struck by lightning and consumed. Of this event, they declare, traces still remain, for the soil, which is scorched in appearance, has lost its productive power. Everything that grows spontaneously, as well as what is planted by hand, either when the leaf or flower have been developed, or after maturing in the usual form, becomes black and rotten, and crumbles into a kind of dust. I am ready to allow, on the one hand, that cities, once famous, may have been consumed by fire from heaven, while, on the other, I imagine that the earth is infected by the exhalations of the lake, that the surrounding air is tainted, and that thus the growth of harvest and the fruits of autumn decay under the equally noxious influences of soil and climate. The river Belus also flows into the Jewish sea. About its mouth is a kind of sand which is collected, mixed with nitre, and fused into glass. This shore is of limited extent, but furnishes an inexhaustible supply to the exporter.Afterwards struck by lightning and consumed - In telling of Sodom and Gomorrah's destruction, Tacitus states that lightning strikes are to blame. However, he then states that the cities "may have been consumed by fire from heaven." Could "fire from heaven" may have been an ancient expression for lightning since it burns, causes fire, destroys, consumes, etc. In Mk 3:17, Jesus surnames James and John Zebedee the "sons of thunder." Why? No one knows for sure, but the best answer seems to be that those two specifically wanted to call fire down from heaven to rain upon Samaritans (Lk 9:54). If correct, this demonstrates an affinity between lightning and "fire from heaven."
The soil, which is scorched in appearance ... cities ... consumed by fire from heaven - The sceptic Tacitus concedes that the terrain appears scorched and that cities may have been consumed by heavenly fire. This coincides rather nicely with what Jude 1:7 states, "Just as Sodom and Gomorrha, and the cities around them in like manner ... are exhibited as an example," where the word "example" is the Greek term δειγμα deigma (= "visible example" or "exhibit"). By using this Greek noun, Jude was conveying that remnants of these cities were still visible in his day.
Histories §5.8: A great part of Judaea consists of scattered villages. They have also towns. Jerusalem is the capital. There stood a temple of immense wealth. First came the city with its fortifications, then the royal palace, then, within the innermost defences, the temple itself. Only the Jew might approach the gates; all but priests were forbidden to pass the threshold. While the East was under the sway of the Assyrians, the Medes, and the Persians, Jews were the most contemptible of the subject tribes. When the Macedonians became supreme, King Antiochus strove to destroy the national superstition, and to introduce Greek civilization, but was prevented by his war with the Parthians from at all improving this vilest of nations; for at this time the revolt of Arsaces had taken place. The Macedonian power was now weak, while the Parthian had not yet reached its full strength, and, as the Romans were still far off, the Jews chose kings for themselves. Expelled by the fickle populace, and regaining their throne by force of arms, these princes, while they ventured on the wholesale banishment of their subjects, on the destruction of cities, on the murder of brothers, wives, and parents, and the other usual atrocities of despots, fostered the national superstition by appropriating the dignity of the priesthood as the support of their political power.King Antiochus strove to destroy the national superstition - And he almost succeeded. Many Jews built a Greek city (polis) and gymnasium in Jerusalem and even attempted to remove their marks of circumcision -- a practice known as epispasm (cf. 1 Cor 7:18). The book of Maccabees states,
From them came forth a sinful root, Antiochus Epiphanes, son of Antiochus the king; he had been a hostage in Rome. He began to reign in the one hundred and thirty-seventh year of the kingdom of the Greeks. In those days lawless men came forth from Israel, and misled many, saying, "Let us go and make a covenant with the Gentiles round about us, for since we separated from them many evils have come upon us." This proposal pleased them, and some of the people eagerly went to the king. He authorized them to observe the ordinances of the Gentiles. So they built a gymnasium in Jerusalem, according to Gentile custom, and removed the marks of circumcision, and abandoned the holy covenant. They joined with the Gentiles and sold themselves to do evil. (1 Mc 1:10-15KJV)This period of religious oppression is what sparked the Maccabean revolt.
Arsaces - Arsaces II of Parthia who was defeated at the battle of Mount Labus.
Histories §5.9: Cneius Pompeius was the first of our countrymen to subdue the Jews. Availing himself of the right of conquest, he entered the temple. Thus it became commonly known that the place stood empty with no similitude of gods within, and that the shrine had nothing to reveal. The walls of Jerusalem were destroyed, the temple was left standing. After these provinces had fallen, in the course of our civil wars, into the hands of Marcus Antonius, Pacorus, king of the Parthians, seized Judaea. He was slain by Publius Ventidius, and the Parthians were driven back over the Euphrates. Caius Sosius reduced the Jews to subjection. The royal power, which had been bestowed by Antony on Herod, was augmented by the victorious Augustus. On Herod's death, one Simon, without waiting for the approbation of the Emperor, usurped the title of king. He was punished by Quintilius Varus then governor of Syria, and the nation, with its liberties curtailed, was divided into three provinces under the sons of Herod. Under Tiberius all was quiet. But when the Jews were ordered by Caligula to set up his statue in the temple, they preferred the alternative of war. The death of the Emperor put an end to the disturbance. The kings were either dead, or reduced to insignificance, when Claudius entrusted the province of Judaea to the Roman Knights or to his own freedmen, one of whom, Antonius Felix, indulging in every kind of barbarity and lust, exercised the power of a king in the spirit of a slave. He had married Drusilla, the granddaughter of Antony and Cleopatra, and so was the grandson-in-law, as Claudius was the grandson, of Antony.Marcus Antonius - Commonly known as Mark Anthony.
Tiberius - The same Tiberius Caesar referred to in Lk 3:1.
Antonius Felix ... married Drusilla - The differing portrayals of Felix as found in the NT and Tacitus are interesting. See Acts 24:22-25.
Histories §5.10: Yet the endurance of the Jews lasted till Gessius Florus was procurator. In his time the war broke out. Cestius Gallus, legate of Syria, who attempted to crush it, had to fight several battles, generally with ill-success. Cestius dying, either in the course of nature, or from vexation, Vespasian was sent by Nero, and by help of his good fortune, his high reputation, and his excellent subordinates, succeeded within the space of two summers in occupying with his victorious army the whole of the level country and all the cities, except Jerusalem. The following year had been wholly taken up with civil strife, and had passed, as far as the Jews were concerned, in inaction. With Peace having been established in Italy, foreign affairs were once more remembered. Our indignation was heightened by the circumstance that the Jews alone had not submitted. At the same time it was held to be more expedient, in reference to the possible results and contingencies of the new reign that Titus should remain with the army.Gessius Florus - Of this tyrant Josephus also speaks,
Gessius Florus, as though he had been sent on purpose to show his crimes to everybody, made a pompous ostentation of them to our nation, as never omitting any sort of violence, nor any unjust sort of punishment; for he was not to be moved by pity, and never was satisfied with any degree of gain that came in his way; nor had he any more regard to great than to small acquisitions, but became a partner with the robbers themselves. ... It was this Florus who necessitated us to take up arms against the Romans, while we thought it better to be destroyed at once, than by little and little. (Ant. 20:255-257)So it seems that Florus was the proverbial straw that broke the camel's back resulting in The Great Revolt which began in 66 CE.
Histories §5.11: The Jews formed their line close under their walls, whence, if successful, they might venture to advance, and where, if repulsed, they had a refuge at hand. The cavalry with some light infantry was sent to attack them, and fought without any decisive result. Shortly afterwards the enemy retreated. During the following days they fought a series of engagements in front of the gates, till they were driven within the walls by continual defeats. The Romans then began to prepare for an assault. It seemed beneath them to await the result of famine. The army demanded the more perilous alternative, some prompted by courage, many by sheer ferocity and greed of gain. Titus himself had Rome with all its wealth and pleasures before his eyes. Jerusalem must fall at once, or it would delay his enjoyment of them. But the commanding situation of the city had been strengthened by enormous works which would have been a thorough defence even for level ground. Two hills of great height were fenced in by walls which had been skilfully obliqued or bent inwards, in such a manner that the flank of an assailant was exposed to missiles. The rock terminated in a precipice; the towers were raised to a height of sixty feet, where the hill lent its aid to the fortifications, where the ground fell, to a height of one hundred and twenty. They had a marvellous appearance, and to a distant spectator seemed to be of uniform elevation. Within were other walls surrounding the palace, and, rising to a conspicuous height, the tower Antonia, so called by Herod, in honour of Marcus Antonius.Titus himself had Rome ... Jerusalem must fall at once - Daniel the prophet spoke of Titus and his armies:
And after the sixty-two weeks, an anointed one will be cut off, and he will be no more, and the people of the coming commander will destroy the city and the sanctuary, and its end will come about by a flood, and until the end of the war, desolations are determined. (Dn 9:26)The tower Antonia - In his 1999 book The Temples that Jerusalem Forgot, Dr. Ernest L. Martin popularized an interesting theory: Antonia partially remains standing in Jerusalem but is known as the "Western Wall." This theory is very compelling and needs to be addressed.
Histories §5.12: The temple resembled a citadel, and had its own walls, which were more laboriously constructed than the others. Even the colonnades with which it was surrounded formed an admirable outwork. It contained an inexhaustible spring; there were subterranean excavations in the hill, and tanks and cisterns for holding rain water. The founders of the state had foreseen that frequent wars would result from the singularity of its customs, and so had made every provision against the most protracted siege. After the capture of their city by Pompey, experience and apprehension taught them much. Availing themselves of the sordid policy of the Claudian era to purchase the right of fortification, they raised in time of peace such walls as were suited for war. Their numbers were increased by a vast rabble collected from the overthrow of the other cities. All the most obstinate rebels had escaped into the place, and perpetual seditions were the consequence. There were three generals, and as many armies. Simon held the outer and larger circuit of walls. John, also called Bargioras, occupied the middle city. Eleazar had fortified the temple. John and Simon were strong in numbers and equipment, Eleazar in position. There were continual skirmishes, surprises, and incendiary fires, and a vast quantity of corn was burnt. Before long John sent some emissaries, who, under pretence of sacrificing, slaughtered Eleazar and his partisans, and gained possession of the temple. The city was thus divided between two factions, till, as the Romans approached, war with the foreigner brought about a reconciliation.Simon ... John ... Eleazar - These men belonged to a group of assassins known as the סיקריקים sîqrîqîm, often Latinized as sacarii, (= "dagger-men" or "assassins"). Likewise in the Mishnah the term סיקריקין sîqrîqîn denotes an assassin and in one case a robber. This no-nonsense group of extreme nationalists, often called "zealots", was known for its unwavering policies. To these killers some scholars have linked Judas, the betrayer of Jesus, because his name "Iscariot" is philologically identical to theirs.
Histories §5.13: Prodigies had occurred, which this nation, prone to superstition, but hating all religious rites, did not deem it lawful to expiate by offering and sacrifice. There had been seen hosts joining battle in the skies, the fiery gleam of arms, the temple illuminated by a sudden radiance from the clouds. The doors of the inner shrine were suddenly thrown open, and a voice of more than mortal tone was heard to cry that the Gods were departing. At the same instant there was a mighty stir as of departure. Some few put a fearful meaning on these events, but in most there was a firm persuasion, that in the ancient records of their priests was contained a prediction of how at this very time the East was to grow powerful, and rulers, coming from Judaea, were to acquire universal empire. These mysterious prophecies had pointed to Vespasian and Titus, but the common people, with the usual blindness of ambition, had interpreted these mighty destinies of themselves, and could not be brought even by disasters to believe the truth. I have heard that the total number of the besieged, of every age and both sexes, amounted to six hundred thousand. All who were able bore arms, and a number, more than proportionate to the population, had the courage to do so. Men and women showed equal resolution, and life seemed more terrible than death, if they were to be forced to leave their country. Such was this city and nation; and Titus Caesar, seeing that the position forbad an assault or any of the more rapid operations of war, determined to proceed by earthworks and covered approaches. The legions had their respective duties assigned to them, and there was a cessation from fighting, till all the inventions, used in ancient warfare, or devised by modern ingenuity for the reduction of cities, were constructed.There had been seen hosts joining battle in the skies - As with virtually all else Tacitus recounts in this paragraph, this is a strange report. But it does harmonize with the notion of biblical tutelars in the divine council doing battle with one another:
They warred from heaven. The stars in their courses fought with Sisera. (Jgs 5:20)
But the king of the kingdom of Persia stood opposing me (Gabriel) twenty one days. Then behold, Michael, one of the head princes came to help me. And I remained there with the kings of Persia. (Dn 10:13)
And he said, Do you know why I (Gabriel) have come to you? And now I will return to war with the ruler of Persia. And when I go out, behold, the ruler of Greece will come. But I will tell you what is written in the scripture of truth. And no one is strengthening himself with me against these save Michael your prince. (Dn 10:20-21)
For we struggle not against flesh and blood, but against rulers, against powers, against the rulers of the darkness of this world, against spiritual wickedness in heavenly places. (Eph 6:12)The doors of the inner shrine were suddenly thrown open - Jewish literature bears an interesting parallel:
It has been taught: "Forty years before the destruction of the Temple, the western light went out, the crimson thread remained crimson, and the lot for the Lord always came up in the left hand. They would close the gates of the Temple by night and get up in the morning and find them wide open." (Neusner, JT Yoma 6:3)
Our rabbis taught: "During the last forty years before the destruction of the Temple the lot ['For the Lord'] did not come up in the right hand; nor did the crimson-colored strap become white; nor did the western most light shine; and the doors of the Hekel [Temple] would open by themselves." (Soncino BT, Yoma 39b)A voice of more than mortal tone was heard to cry that the gods were departing - This is strange indeed given that Israel only worshipped one God as Tacitus himself already attested. Perhaps this plural usage ("gods") reflects the common Hebrew word for God (= אְֶלֹהִים ’ĕlōhîm) which is plural: but here translated into Latin.
This concludes Tacitus' Histories §5 and the accompanying commentary. It is my hope that the reader has found this work useful and effective to pique his or her interest into the report of Tacitus and perhaps other ancient writers.
[i] According to Ronald Mellor, there is reason to believe that Tacitus acquired his knowledge of Jewry solely from books. See Mellor 2010:57-58.
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